In I. Lolashvili’s view (see: Homer, Shavteli, Rustaveli, Mnatobi, 2, 1960, pg. 143-149), “The Man in the Panther Skin’s” “Moli”, and Homeric “Moly” (Odyssey, X, 305) “are one and the same concepts” and thus, Rustaveli had been familiar with Homer’s Epic (see pg. 149). The mentioned opinion could not shake the traditional point of view on “Moli”, according to which, it is used in “The Man in the Panther Skin” not as a herbal means for neutralizing witchcraft, but in the sense of a “cloak” (for details see V. Asatiani, Classical and Byzantine Traditions in Ancient Georgian Literature, Tbilisi, 1996, pg. 159-161, with bibliography) and thus, the standpoint, that the “Moli” points to Rustaveli’s awareness of Homeric epic has not been followed by the researchers (see V. Baakashvili, Homer in Ancient Georgian Literature, in the collection of articles: The Issues of Ancient Georgian Literature, vol. II, Tbilisi, 1964, pg. 97; cf. “The Man in the Panther Skin”, School Edition with Introduction, Literary Review, Dictionary and Commentary, Edited by N. Natadze, Tbilisi, 2006, pg. 367). In Z. Khintibidze’s view, for the clarification of the issue of the relationship between the “Moli” of “The Man in the Panther Skin” and Homeric “Moly” - and afterwards, to draw an even more far-reaching conclusions - is not sufficient simply to compare the meanings of these words. It is required to be compared with each other the entire episodes of epic poems, within which Homeric “Moly” and Rustavelian “Moli” occur. The study, carried out in this direction revealed the undoubted similarity of the artistic images of Homeric Circe and Rustavelian Patmani and furthermore, the whole episode, reflecting the stay of one of the protagonists of “The Man in the Panther Skin”, Avtandili with Patmani indicates that Rustaveli knew the Odyssey, namely the so-called Circe episode, and made its conscious and at the same time creative reception, generally characteristic to the artistic thinking of the (pre-)Renaissance period. The image of Circe has been the source of inspiration of numerous artists from the Classical times to the present day. As becomes clear, the author of “The Man in the Panther Skin” is not an exception either. The above-mentioned unequivocally points to the fact that “Moly” must have found its way into the artistic world of “The Man in the Panther Skin” exactly by means of reception of Classical tradition, in particular, of Homer’s Odyssey (for details see Sasa Chintibidse, Ein Fall der Rezeption von Homers Odyssee in Rustvelis Vepxistqaosani, Georgica, 28, 2005, Aachen, Shaker Verlag, pp. 167-182; Z. Khintibidze, Homer and Rustavely – The Homeric Principles of  Compositional Organization and the Epic Tradition, Tbilisi, 2005, pg. 213-233; by the same author, Compositional Function of the Circe-Myth in Greek-Roman, Medieval European and Georgian Epic Traditions: Typological Similarities or Literary Reception, Phasis - Greek and Roman Studies, vol. 10 (II), Tbilisi, 2007, pp. 48-56, the abridged version of which see below). [Z.Kh.]

Zaza Khintibidze

Compositional Function of the Circe-Myth in Greek-Roman, Medieval European

and Classical Georgian Epic Traditions: Typological Similarity or Literary Reception?

(Abridged Version)

[…] between Homer’s story of Odysseus and Circe, on the one hand, and Rustaveli’s episode about Avtandili and Patmani, on the other one, both structural-compositional, i.e. systemic or regular similarity, that of the so-called general character, as well as particular cases of lexical-phraseological and situational coincidence are found. I focus attention on the above-mentioned because in the case of the existence of only the former, the similarity under consideration might have been explained within the limits of typology, and not necessarily that of reception, whereas in the case of the existence of only the latter – by the factor of accidental coincidence. The simultaneous existence of both types of similarity, in my opinion, can be explained exclusively by the fact of literary reception of the Classical tradition.

The circumstance that Circe is an enchantress and goddess, and Patmani – only a mortal woman of easy virtue from the high society, I think, cannot be regarded as an obstacle to substantiating the possible similarity between them. The point is that the image of Circe as a result of different interpretations of various authors of the Classical and Byzantine periods underwent considerable transformation. In particular, it was entirely demythologized and desacralized. The fact is that […] with Petronius Circe is neither a goddess nor an enchantress nor a priestess any longer, but a woman of easy virtue from the high society. And finally, in philosophical treatises of Late Antiquity her image is interpreted as an allegory of passion, lack of restraint and other human vices. This tendency of demythologization and desacralization appears already in the Argonautica by Apollonius of Rhodes, where Circe is only a priestess, and no longer a goddess (see M. Erkomaishvili, The Circe Myth and Its Interpretation in Classical Literature, Tbilisi, 2002, p. 152).

When comparing the episodes of Patmani and Circe above all the striking similarity of these two female characters should be noted. Here I imply the so-called ambivalence i.e. duality of character, typical of the mythological as well as literary image of Circe, which means that this personage has both negative and positive traits. In Homer’s Odyssey Circe is exactly like this. Already from the Argonautica by Apollonius of Rhodes onward she is interpreted one-sidedly – only positively (with Apollonius of Rhodes) or only negatively (with Virgil, Ovid, Petronius, philosophers and commentators of the Late Antiquity). Thus, unlike Circe, interpreted in fact partially by Apollonius of Rhodes and other Classical authors, literary characters created by Homer and Rustaveli (Circe and Patmani, respectively) undergo a transformation: the initial negative function of these characters finally changes to a positive one.

In my view, the literary images of Homer’s Circe and Rustaveli’s Patmani show obvious similarity according to another, even more significant structural-compositional feature as well: both characters are associated with the world of sorcery, i.e. magic. According to the Odyssey, Circe, as is known, is an enchantress herself and can turn men into pigs. In the case of Patmani, it is evident that this female character too is linked with witchcraft (this is the only case of real magic found in the poem, hence, the fact of its existence in Rustaveli’s literary world, due to its extraordinariness, requires a special explanation). Although Patmani herself apparently is not initiated into the knowledge of magic, she has slaves “full of sorcery” (see “The Man in the Panther Skin”, 1238, 1-2; cf. “Odyssey”, X, 571/573) and makes use of their skill (see “The Man in the Panther Skin”, 1269, 1).

One more structural-compositional similarity between the image-characters of Homer’s Circe and Rustaveli’s Patmani is that both women annihilate the men with whom they had a love affair. However, the similarity is not limited to the thematic-structural coincidence. In my view, the functional-compositional analogy is also evident. Circe does not do Odysseus any harm; on the contrary, she even helps him. Patmani, in her turn, remains Avtandili’s faithful helper even after he reveals his identity. So, as we see, one more compositional similarity is found: if in the “Odyssey” Circe helps Odysseus to find his way home, in “The Man in the Panther Skin” the architectonic peculiarity of development of the story-line gives Patmani the compositional function of assisting Avtandili in finding Nestani (hence, helping his friend Tarieli and returning to his homeland, Arabia).

In order to illustrate the systemic, i.e. so called general similarity between Homer’s story about Odysseus and Circe, on the one hand, and Rustaveli’s episode about Avtandili and Patmani, I would like to focus attention also on the fact that the episodes under consideration in the “Odyssey” (X, 135-574), as well as in “The Man in the Panther Skin” (1061-1326) are created by means of the realization of one and the same structural-compositional model. in particular, this model consists of four component parts: the first one is the arrival of the hero (Odysseus / Avtandili) in a foreign land (Aeaean island / capital of the Kingdom of the Seas, Gulansharo) and his familiarization with that place; in the second part the hero meets an unknown  hostess (Circe / Patmani) and enters into a love affair with her against his own will; in the third part the hero asks the hostess to assist his friends who are in trouble, and his request is satisfied immediately; in the final, fourth part the hero takes leave of the hostess and receives advice and guidance from her before his departure.

As regards particular cases of lexical-phraseological sameness and situational coincidence of scenes, to illustrate them I would like to emphasize the following circumstances.

1. One of Patmani’s sorcerer slaves during the process of fulfilling the task entrusted to him by his mistress uses a magic means called “Moli” (as it is called in the Circe episode from the “Odyssey” as well: this word - recorded with Homer as Moly - was pronounced as Molü - see “Odyssey”, X, 305; however,  according to the phonetic laws of the Greek language of the Byzantine period, in Rustaveli’s time Moly / Molü was already pronounced as Moli - see “The Man in the Panther Skin”, 1276, 3). Thus, the similarity is not manifested only in the “coincidence” of the designations of the magic means, but in their function as well: in both cases “Moly” is such a magic means which is used against sorcerers (Circe and the Kajis), and with a kind purpose, in particular, to assist the traveling hero (Odysseus / Avtandili). Along with this, it should also be noted that Rustaveli refers to “Moly” as “some Moly”, i.e. some kind of Moly. Generally, it is not typical of the author of “The Man in the Panther Skin” to describe anything else so vaguely (e.g. see “The Man in the Panther Skin”, 463, 3 – 464), and the only fact of the deviation from this general rule must indicate that Rustaveli is not familiar with the properties and the principle of operation of Moly as a magic means. This in its turn can be explained by the fact that the principle of operation of “Moly” is not described in the “Odyssey” either, and only the outward appearance of this plant is given, in addition, in a quite laconic way (see “Odyssey”, X, 304). In my view, the above-mentioned unequivocally points to the fact that “Moly” must have found its way into the artistic world of “The Man in the Panther Skin” exactly by means of literary reception of the Classical tradition.

2. Patmani’s littoral city, like the Aeaean island of Circe, lies to the east (see “The Man in the Panther Skin”, 948, 3 and “Odyssey”, XII, 1-4). According to one passage of the poem, this city is situated at the junctures of different sea routes, and moreover, as is clear from the name of the country (“Kingdom of the Seas”), at the crossroads of different seas (see “The Man in the Panther Skin”, 1065, 1/3). In another passage of “The Man in the Panther Skin”, this place is definitely referred to as “the navel (i.e. very midst) of the sea” (see “The Man in the Panther Skin”, 584, 1). As is known, Homer refers to the island of Nymph Calypso, a mythological-literary doublet of Circe, at the beginning of the “Odyssey”, when Odysseus is still there, as “the navel  /i.e. midst/ of the sea” (see “Odyssey”, I, 50: ”Hothi t’ omphalos (navel) esti thalasses”).

3. As is known, the Greeks stayed with Circe during a year, after which Odysseus asked his hostess to let him and his friends continue their journey homewards. According to Homer, this happened “when exactly one year had passed, seasons had made their circle, / months had flown and many long days had passed” (see “Odyssey”, X, 469-470). Avtandili stayed with Patmani for a much shorter period than a year. However, Rustaveli starts counting time from the beginning of one of the stages of the hero’s wanderings of many years, and thus, Avtandili (like Odysseus) can start his parting words by noting that one year has elapsed almost completely, due to which, he has to say farewell to his hostess and continue his journey. Literally, Avtandili says:  “I go, I have no leisure to tarry longer, last year's time is come” (see “The Man in the Panther Skin”, 1312, 3). So, I think, one more lexical-phraseological coincidence is found: at the beginning of the parting scenes of Odysseus and Circe as well as Avtandili and Patmani the expiration of a one-year period of time is compared with the recurrence of seasons and the cyclicity of nature, in general.

Against the background of the above-listed general-systemic and lexical-phraseological i.e. particular coincidences, I think, it is unjustifiable to ascribe to chance numerous cases of situational similarity of scenes, of which I shall draw your attention only to the following examples.

1. According to Homer, Odysseus has to go to bed with Circe. Hermes demands this from him.  Otherwise the hero will not be able to help his companions, transformed into pigs, as he will not compel Circe to turn them back into humans in any other way (see: “Odyssey”, X, 296-298). Like Odysseus, Avtandili fulfils Patmani’s wish to enter into a love affair with her against his own will and in order to help his friend, Tarieli (see: “The Man in the Panther Skin”, 1089-1093).

2. When Odysseus learns from Eurylochus that his companions, sent to reconnoiter, are in real danger, he without hesitation arms himself and immediately takes a decision to rescue them. He only asks Eurylochus to show him the way to Circe’s house. However, when Eurylochus refuses to do so, he goes to Circe alone (see: “Odyssey”, X, 261-263). When in return for telling the story of her former lover, Chashnagiri, Patmani demands from Avtandili to kill him, the hero realizes at once that if he learns this story, he may help Tarieli, so he arises fast and taking an iron cudgel, decides immediately to satisfy Patmani’s demand. He asks Patmani to give him a man as guide to show him the road. The guide shows Avtandili Chashnagiri’s house from a distance and leaves him alone. Taking into account the situational similarity analyzed above, I think, it should not be accidental either that exactly in this passage Rustaveli addresses the reader and insists twice within one line that there is none other [knight] like Avtandili (see: “The Man in the Panther Skin”, 1109-1113).

3. Both in the “Odyssey” and in “The Man in the Panther Skin”, the hero (Odysseus / Avtandili) eventually manages to subjugate the hostess (Circe / Patmani) to his will by threatening her, namely, he is holding a weapon: Odysseus is holding a sword, Avtandili – a blood-stained knife (see: “Odyssey”, X, 321-323 and “The Man in the Panther Skin”, 1118, 4 _ 1119, 1-2).

4. After Odysseus goes to bed with Circe, four housemaids of the goddess wash and dress him. Then Circe bids him eat, after which the hero returns to his ship (see “Odyssey”, X, 345-407). After the night spent with Patmani, Avtandili too goes forth to bathe. Patmani gives him many garments, and invites him to a meal, like Circe invites Odysseus. After this the knight goes home (see “The Man in the Panther Skin”, 1255; 1257, 1; 1259, 1).

            Thus, Homeric enchantress Circe - gradually ‘degraded and diminished’ to the image of a woman of easy virtue within the Classical epic tradition and by means of Rustaveli’s poetic perception transformed into Patmani - in the artistic world of The Man in the Panther Skin acquires again her original compositional function, which she had had at the initial stage of the epic tradition, in particular, in the “Odyssey”: that of assisting the wandering hero visiting her. According to Homer, this hero is Odysseus, according to Rustaveli – Avtandili.

Rustaveli, on the one hand, takes into account the medieval European epic tradition and does not mention Circe’s name. On the other hand, it is obvious that Circe is familiar to the author of “The Man in the Panther Skin” directly from the Classical epic tradition. In particular, both from its relatively late stage (literature of the Roman empire and Late Antiquity, within which Homer’s enchantress and goddess retained, in fact, only her name - Circe), and from the earliest stage as well, i.e. Homer’s “Odyssey”, which enabled Rustaveli, by means of the creative reception of the initial, Homeric compositional function of the Circe-myth, to create an entirely new, Renaissance-type literary character – Patmani.